Examining how human behaviour and macaque demographics influence the human-macaque (Macaca fascicularis) interface in Singapore

The increasing presence of anthropogenically altered environments in primate and wildlife populations is leading to more human-wildlife contact. Currently, the literature on primate behaviour in the human-macaque interface predominantly discusses problematic interactions, often referred to as "conflict," neglecting positive relations and human behaviour in interactions. Extensive research on conflict may overemphasize negative aspects of human-macaque interactions making mitigation strategies insufficient to support peaceful coexistence arguments. Further, negativity bias suggesting interactions with macaques are more negative than they are, can hinder conservation success. In this research, I aimed to provide a perspective on the relationship of humans with macaques by analysing behaviours of residents/tourists and long-tailed macaques in encounters at the MacRitchie Reservoir Park in Singapore. I also analysed how macaque sex/age differences based on their life-history traits may influence behaviour and interactions. Of the 2,703 human-macaque encounters observed, I recorded monkeys ignoring humans in 83.17% of the encounters. Only 16.83% of encounters involved macaque-to-human interaction. Most interactions occurred in contexts initiated by humans, especially involving human food (52.31%). Macaques exhibited mostly affiliative/submissive behaviour more than aggressive behaviour in interactions, even when human food was involved. Sub-adult male macaques were involved in most interactions as expected, but adult female macaques were also involved in many interactions more than adult males and juveniles. Humans mostly ignored monkeys (59.79%), while many also appreciated them (33.06%). My findings suggest that humans and macaques mostly live peacefully in Singapore. This may demonstrate that the co-occurrence of humans and macaques is not always a problematic situation requiring interventions. Further, positive psychology can enhance management practices, promoting benefits and identifying mechanisms that make wildlife experiences and protection worthwhile, ultimately optimizing conservation success.